The Role of Local Culture and Context in English Language Teaching Essay Example

The Role of Local Culture and Context in English Language Teaching Essay The Role of Local Culture and Context in English Language Teaching -Mabindra Regmi The Relation between Language and Culture The structuralists portrayed language as an entity that could be segmented and through learning these segments, the totality would also be learnt. This method has been tested, challenged and in many cases discarded in the world of linguistics. The conception, propagation and inevitable discontinuation of ever new methods has prompted Sowden to express â€Å"there has indeed been methodological fatigue, leading many to the pragmatic conclusion that informed eclecticism offers the best approach for the future. (Sowden, 2007, p. 304). Perhaps, eclecticism is the right trend while implementing ELT methods. One of the factors that should be considered, however, is that there seems to be a deep connection between language and culture unlike the belief of the structuralists. The concept of language teaching now is that of concentration in what the learners learn or w ant to learn rather that what is to be taught. As the classrooms get more learner-centered, it can be assumed that the attitude and the initiatives from the learners’ side will be more prominent. Since a person is shaped by ones culture and local setting, we can assume that the importance of cultural context in language teaching will grow as learning becomes more learner centered. It is in conjunction with this shift of emphasis away from teaching and towards learning, that there has appeared a growing awareness of the role played by culture in the classroom. (Sowden C, 2007, p. 304) It is not only the learners that come with their own culture in the classroom, the teachers also bring their own culture. This is particularly true if the language teacher is not from the locality. We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Local Culture and Context in English Language Teaching specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Local Culture and Context in English Language Teaching specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Local Culture and Context in English Language Teaching specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Sowden warns the teacher â€Å"to be aware not only of the cultures of their students and their environment, but also of the cultures that they themselves bring to the classroom† (Sowden, 2007, p. 305). Thus, it can be seen, however inconclusive, that culture of both the teacher and learner plays an important role in the language learning environment and they have to be addressed for effective learning to take place. This intricate mutual relationship between language and culture may be the key to unlock the language teaching methodologies of the future. Whenever we talk about anguage and its use, it is important to figure out the relation between language and culture. There are few things we need to ask ourselves in this regard. Can language exist independent of culture? Is learning a new language (English) definitive of learning the culture of native speakers of English? Who are the native speakers of English? Will the culture of the native speakers be appropriate in the set ting of the language learner? Can language exist independent of culture? A language cannot exist in vacuum. It has to express some objective function when utterances are made or some text is written. When we do make use of language, the production made is generally about what we know or what we have experienced. What we know and experience mostly confines within the local setting that we have grown up and where we are residing. Thus, local context becomes inseparable from the use of language. Is learning a new language (English) definitive of learning the culture of native speakers of English? When we learn a new language, we need to adopt the culture of the target language to a certain extent because the cultural aspect comes amalgamated with the target language. But what about the learners? The learners have their own set of cultural experiences and objectives of using a language. They have their own cultural amalgamation which has to be addressed during target language learning process to make it meaningful and relevant to the learners. We can assume that integration of local culture and context is inevitable while learning a target language. Who are the native speakers of English? The distinction that makes a native speaker is generally very vague and often misleading. It might be important to look into the terminology if we are to explain what English is. A dictionary definition might say that native is belonging to a certain geographic location. In the case of English we must consider the fact that it is spoken in many parts of the world and more and more people are adopting it as the first language of communication. In this setting we must consider the appropriateness of calling certain speakers native and others not. Furthermore, even within the native speakers we find many varieties as in the British English, American English, Australian English, or South African English. If the English language is to be made a ruly global one, one must leave the notion of ‘native speakers’ behind. Will the culture of the native speakers be appropriate in the setting of the language learner? The culture and context of the learner and the native user of English may differ very contrastively. The traditional native speakers of English have their own cultural and contextual setting and it creeps into the language that they use. It should not be surprising thus, that the English used in non-native setting has the purpose of academia without much cultural interference. But can English have the same purpose if it were to only transfer the cultural and contextual nature of the target language? In order to make English learning a holistic experience, it is important that culture and local context are integrated so the learner has a more comprehensive grasp of the language. Different Views Regarding the Role of Culture in Language Class Different people have expressed their opinions regarding the role of culture in language class. Phyak, P has collected four such opinions from various personnel in his article integrating local culture in the EFL context of Nepal: An ignored agenda? The first view expressed by Byram and Flemming (Byram, 1997; Byram and Fleming, 1998) states that the target language culture should be taught in ELT in order to help learners to acculturate into the culture of English countries. The second view expressed by Karchu, Nelson and Canagaraja (Kachru, 1986; Kachru and Nelson, 1996; Canagarajah, 1999) opines that there is no need of teaching target culture especially in the contexts where different institutionalised varieties of English are in practice. Similarly, the third view by Kramsch and Sullivan (Kramsch and Sullivan, 1996) states plainly that ‘local culture’ in TEFL should be taught. Finally, the fourth view by Alptekin, Jenkins and Seidlhofer (Alptekin, 2005; Jenkins, 2005; Seidlhofer, 2001) says that since English is a lingua franca, it should be taught in a culture-free context. In the same article Phyak gives a fifth opinion regarding the use of culture in language class by assimilating the highlights of the above opinions where he advises the teachers to use both target and native cultures with priority to local culture (Phyak, P). Whatever the views of applied linguists all over the world, we cannot disregard two core realities. The first is that while learning a second language, the influence of the culture of that language is inevitable. The second fact is that the learner of second language comes equipped with the culture of the first language. If no association is made between the culture of the first language and the learning of the second one, the learning will not be as effective. Therefore, inclusion of local culture and context should be more prominent in the initial phases and gradually gear more towards the target culture so that the integration is seamless in the end and language skill transition is more comprehensive. English as an International Language Hegemony of English language is a global phenomenon and the onset of modern technology, the computer; and as the choice language of the academia will further strengthen it. Eventually, the spread of English will probably be the root cause for disappearance of majority of world languages. Having said that, one must accommodate the fact that the use of English in international communication is increasing, and thus, it is gaining momentum as being an international language. The rise of English as an international language has created many concerns among the laymen, experts, anglophiles and chauvinists alike. The concerns can be divided into two factions. The first leads us towards convergence of all world languages into one giant English language. Because of the advent of printing, and more recently, media; languages, specifically English; are being standardized so that there is uniformity in the manner we write and speak. Many believe this to be a positive step towards world unification. There may be advantages to uniformity, but the question is; does it outweigh the disadvantages that it might bring in the form of ‘language death’ as expressed by David Crystal or loss of identity? The other faction is made up of personnel who are asking this very question. The prominence of English might be an indicator of decline of other languages. When a language is lost, it is not only the means of communication that is lost with it. There are contextual and cultural associations with languages, and in addition; it also forms the corpora of accumulated knowledge of a community. All this will also be lost with the dying language. Moreover, there is a strong affinity of the language with the identity of a person or a community. Although English may provide with alternate identity, as shall be discussed later in this paper, the primary form of identity shall be lost, especially if the learning of English is subtractive in terms of the first language. Discrepancies aside, internationalization of English is inevitable. The question now remains is how we are going to bring about policies for other languages that are in existence. In order to understand why English is fast becoming a global language, we must try and analyze why is it important for us to learn English. There are many reasons why an individual would want to learn English. i. English may be a factor for obtaining better employment opportunities. ii. English is the medium of communication for business, recreation and competitive tournaments. iii. English is almost mandatory for learners pursuing higher academic achievements and publishing of one’s findings. iv. The knowledge of English may provide higher social standing or identity in many cases. We can see that English language empowers a person both in terms of social and material power. Thus we can see the attraction towards learning English. The choices that the language communities have is either to have subtractive learning of English and forget one’s own linguistic heritage, as is happening mostly in developing countries like Nepal; or to make the learning process additive by retaining one’s own language intact. It can be assumed that the later alternative is more acceptable. The reason for the long windedness of the explanation above brings us back to the core discussion of this paper: local context and culture in teaching or learning English. Now as we have made a huge circle from the inevitable internationalization of English to the better alternate of additive learning of English; it is time to ponder over how we are going to teach English language. English Language, Local Culture and Social Identity If we want to have mastery over English language, then I believe we must find a way to make the language practical to its learners. Just reading the literature of the language or using the language in stereotype British or American cultural setting will not hold much significance to the learner of English as a foreign language. What needs to be done is to bring about association between the language being learnt and the experience of the learners. This will provide platform for practicality of the language being learnt. In order to understand why local context and local culture must be integrated into teaching of English language, we must also be familiar with how culture and local context plays a role in language learning. Culture and Language Reflect each other The common notion regarding the purpose of language learning has been related to communication. Because of the researches done in sociolinguistics and discourse, we should consider the fact that language is not only ‘understanding’ what the other person is expressing but it is also necessary that we understand the text at a discourse level where cultural and individual background conveys deeper meaning to the language items used. Language is not only communicating with words but we have deep rooted cultural and contextual schemata and frames which are reflected in the language that we use. Thus it is important to analyze the meaning of discourse at cultural and contextual level. The reason that we should consider the Frame and Schema theories of discourse analysis when talking about the language is that if we are not able to express or comprehend the schema created through cultural setting, only understanding the text in communication will not be able to justify the meaning that should have been understood. Only through associating and integrating the language that we are trying to learn (English) into social and cultural setting shall we be able to exploit the nuances of the expression made in a language. Englebert believes that there is a cultural variation between the learner and the language and that the â€Å"teacher hosting foreign students must come to terms with the fact that those students are immersed in a culture with which they are not familiar, and that they bring with them not only their limited knowledge of the language, but a myriad of assumptions based on generations of cultural indoctrination†. (Englebert, 2004). These assumptions based on â€Å"cultural indoctrination† are at the core of schema of the learner. Not only the culture of the target language but even the prescribed packaged methodology might create confusion in teaching English as a foreign language. In her study among the Asian students studying in New Zealand, Li found that â€Å"the interactive teaching methods adopted by New Zealand teachers are culturally incompatible with Asian students’ learning conceptualizations. The findings suggest that some teachers’ adoption of the communicative or interactive teaching approach led to Asian students’ negative learning experience in New Zealand† (Li, 2004). This shows that the cultural background and the mindset of the learner should be considered while teaching English. Subsequently, it also indicates the integration of local context and culture of the learner for smoother and more effective teaching learning experience. If the learner of English is only familiar with her own experience based on her own cultural and local setting, trying to incorporate a different language with a different setting will make it literally ‘foreign’. The ‘foreignness’ can be significantly eliminated if local context and culture of the learner is being used in the target language. Thus integrating the cultural and contextual setting in language learning will be important. English Language and Social Identity Bonny Norton has explained that in the current social situation, English language helps create a more powerful identity for the individuals because of the advantages associated with the proficiency of English Language (Norton, 2007). She further explains that construction of identity through learning English are complex and dynamic. The five examples that she has taken in her article all give different perspectives people have for English language based on their cultural and contextual backgrounds. If individuals from different social and ethnical backgrounds have different concepts about how English should be taught and learnt, then we can assume that it is the experience of the learner that is influencing such perspectives. An individual is the product of the local culture and context, so we cannot ignore the importance of inclusion of local context and culture in English pedagogy. Norton recommends that we should not overlook the focus on individual account while teaching English. She further explains that the researches on language teaching and identity is fragmented and it has to be made more organized, and if English belongs to the people who speak it, expansion of English in this Global era is better (Norton, 2007). Inclusion of Local Context and Culture in ELT in Nepal Along with the gathering momentum of inclusion of local culture and context in language teaching across the world, an initiative has been started in Nepal where linguists and social activists are advocating for inclusion of local context and culture, namely, ethnic languages in mainstream education. Alongside with this initiative there are many linguists and teachers of English language who are advocating for inclusion of local context and culture in English Language Teaching. The problem that the Nepali society is facing is how to bring about the implementation of such content and context in English language. Looking at the coursebooks and educational materials, it is evident that the English teaching is heavily influenced by the culture of target language users. Although some content and stories seem that they have local context, but the exercises that follow again reflect to the target language culture. On the other hand, the teachers are also imparted trainings and education aligning with the target language culture. In this ambience, it will be difficult to implement inclusive local content and culture while teaching of English. In order to overcome this impasse, some measures can be taken so that there is a momentum towards progressive implementation of the discussed issue. First, the language policy makers and the educators of the country need to come together to make a master plan on how to develop materials, train teachers and set objectives on inclusion of local culture and context in ELT. Only when a concrete set of objectives and a clear vision of the implementational procedures have been codified, the initiative can move forward. Second, there has to be a mass drive for collection of local content in the form of stories, poems, articles and the like which also reflects local culture. The content corpus has to be exhaustive so that all the major aspects that need to be covered are covered. Agencies like Nepal English Language Teachers’ Association, NELTA, can be instrumental in taking the necessary initiatives. It is wise to include people from different academic, professional, age group, ethnic, gender, and geographical backgrounds to make the corpus comprehensive and complete. Third, the gathered content has to be carefully cataloged, edited and selected for practical use. There may be many ways by which the content can be used. The content can be an integrated one where a little of everything is included, or it might also be ethnic or locality specific where different communities make use of different relevant parts of the corpus. The fourth, which might also be the most important, is to enable the teacher of English to believe that local content and context is not only necessary but is the most effective way of teaching or learning a language. The teacher should also have autonomy to develop content from her own locality adjusting to the need of the learners there. Perhaps the most difficult part of this endeavor will be to discard the prevalent target culture based content in favor of local culture based one. But once the importance is felt and the initiative commenced, language learning process will take a meaningful and applicable turn. The learners then will not be learning English in vacuum but they can associate their own life experiences to the language being learnt. Finally, a monitoring and evaluation mechanism should be developed in order to judge how successful the implementation of the initiative has been. The monitoring and evaluating body can also make necessary changes in the whole process as the problems arise. Association and Comprehension through Local Context in ELT If there is association between the local context and culture, and English Language teaching; the learners might benefit in many different ways. As Lengkanawati states â€Å"we can conclude that the choice and the intensity of using language learning strategies is influenced by many factors, one of which is the students’ cultural background† (Lengkanawati, 2004), the association of local culture and English language teaching might help the learner build better learning strategies. It will lead the learner to grasp deeper meaning of the target language and use it efficiently and productively. Moreover, the differences that lie within the variations of English will make the learner appreciate that context and culture are essential for language learning. All this will lead to a global culture where one retains her native culture while learning that of the target language and thus of the whole world. We have discussed previously about the nature of association between language and culture. In addition, we also discussed about the emergence of English as an international language and the advantages of learning it. Then we went on to how local context and culture can be integrated into teaching English in Nepal. Now, we shall focus on advantages there might be in integrating local context and culture while teaching English in three different stages. The association of local context and culture can be done in three levels: using local context and culture while learning English, Using the context and culture of the target language, and integrating the two cultures to create multicultural or global comprehension. 1. Using the local cultural and contextual setting while learning English. Using local context and culture will enable the learners to grasp the deeper meaning of English because they can associate the cultural and contextual meaning that they are familiar with. In Barfield and Uzarski’s findings, â€Å"the classroom observation showed that students in pair and group works were more interactive when they had to discuss on their local cultures than when they had to discuss on different stories or texts which they were not familiar with. † Contextualization will further enable the learner to be proficient in the language at a faster pace. The learner will understand how a different language is not very different from one’s own. This methodology needs to be applied on the learners at least at the beginning. The learners must be given ample opportunities to interact in the target language. This is only possible if the content that is being used is related to local context or culture. If target language culture is given as a topic of interaction, the learners may have nothing to contribute and will be less willing to proceed further. 2. Using the culture and context of the target language The users of the target language are varied. There is no single context or culture that defines a language like English. Therefore, it will be difficult to identify the target culture when we talk of English. This also indicates that even within the same language there is influence of local context and culture. This will make the learner understand that the language is not entirely free from the culture and context of a community. For example, we can take metro English that the Londoners’ use. It is very different from the traditional Standard or BBC English that we learn in Nepal or the other parts of the world. Sometimes there is a discrepancy in lexical meanings and pronunciation too. A pavement for the British might be sidewalk for the Americans. A mate is a friend in Australia and spouse in England. The fact that even among the native speakers of English in different countries the linguistic items have different meanings will enable the learners to realize that culture or local context is the key factor in using and understanding a language. It will also give an insight that language is culture and context specific and not medium specific. To clarify this statement we can safely assume that the people coming from same cultural and contextual setting will share more meanings than people from cross-culture sharing the same language. This demarcation will be of vital importance because the learner will be able to comprehend that to understand a person is not only understanding the language but understanding the local context and culture as well. It will further inspire the learners of English to be familiar with different cultural settings of the people that use the language. This kind of interpretation of language should be carried out at intermediate and advanced levels where the learners have been made familiar of the inclusion of their own cultural and local contexts while learning English. 3. The emergence of a Global culture When more and more people start becoming familiar with the local culture and context of more and more places, then a common, integrated culture will emerge. This is the Global phenomenon that has been extensively discussed in every sphere of modern human civilization. This global concept of the language and cross-cultural integration should be the ultimate outcome of language learning. When we are able to identify issues of global importance and contribute to it in a local way, then we will be adherent to the post-modernist maxim of â€Å"think globally, act locally†. This is a concept that might be difficult to understand for many learners. There is also a paradox of going local to harbor a global outlook. This in turn complicates the nature of language that we use in the modern world. The learners of languages, and specifically of dominant language like English, should consider the integration of local context and language. Considering the complexity of the process and inputs, learners of the tertiary level of English should be taught at this comprehensive level. Assimilation of Various Cultures for Global Interpretation Barfield and Uzarski have a very interesting notion regarding language integration when they opine that even if an indigenous language is lost, which is happening at an alarming rate all over the world, through integration it can be preserved within another language like English. Interestingly, despite the loss or future loss of an indigenous language, the â€Å"roots† of that indigenous culture can be preserved through the learning of another language, such as English. (Barfield and Uzarski, 2009) This is one notion that can be construed as positive aspect of assimilation of local culture into a Global one. Even though we might have strong opinions regarding local languages and cultures that we have inherited, and feel strongly towards dominance and ultimate displacement that a language like English will do to other local languages, the only way to actually save a part of the culture and local form of language might be through English. In order to achieve this, it would be important to integrate local context and culture in teaching languages like English. On the other hand, because English is fast becoming the lingua franca of the world, there should also be a global ownership of the language. If we consider only one of the cultures of the native speakers then the globalization of the language will not be possible. In order to truly make a language like English a global one, and for all the cultures to feel that they are also a part of this global phenomenon, integration of local culture and context is important. So, at the end, every individual language community can feel the ownership of global English through integration and assimilation. Contrastively, the cultural and local contexts of societies that use English language are varied and it would be impossible to integrate everything about all the cultures. To make it comprehensible in the global arena, we should find out commonalities that exist in all the cultures and localities across the world and try to establish a common contextual and cultural condition for the language to evolve into a Global Language. Such understanding and cohesion will provide â€Å"the abilities to perform effectively and appropriately with members of another language-culture background on their terms† (Barfield and Uzarski, 2009). Conclusion This article has assumed certain developments in English language based on current global trends. It has assumed that English is fast becoming a global language and it will become more so in the future. It has also assumed that the local languages will decline and decay in the face of English as their adversary. Considering these base assumptions, the article has provided insight into understanding the importance of English language and equal importance of using local context and culture while teaching English. In conclusion, we can reaffirm the essence of the whole discussion in the following manner: first, we need to understand that we use English as a method of communication and this language is fast becoming a global anguage. Because we use it in our communication, the language cannot be excluded from the local context and culture because they are what we are likely to be communicating about. There may be differences in opinions regarding how or if local context and culture should be used in teaching English, but it is essential that we integrate local context and culture. Se cond, use of local context and culture in teaching English will depend on the nature of the local setting. Same system may not be applicable in all communities. Therefore, how the integration is to be done should be tailored to suit the needs of a particular community or a country. In case of Nepal, this can initiate with development of content corpus based on multilingual communities existing in the country and making a broad plan on what and how to integrate the content thus collected and selected. Third, the use of local context and culture can be done following a procedural format where local context and culture can be given more priority in the earlier stages of learning English language. Slowly, learning of the culture and context of the target language is to be achieved for more comprehensive understanding. When integration is done among various communities and language groups, then English will emerge as a true global language with global ownership. Finally, we should also consider the possibility that many present languages of the world might one day die. And the only possibility of its context and culture to be passed on may be through integration into a dominant language like English. All these expositions make the use of local context and culture in English Language Teaching a necessity.

Impact of marketing communications on customers’ attitudes and behaviour. The WritePass Journal

Impact of marketing communications on customers’ attitudes and behaviour. Introduction Impact of marketing communications on customers’ attitudes and behaviour. Introduction The aim of this essay is to explain how marketing communications can be used to change customers’ attitudes and influence customers’ behaviour. Marketing communications play a significant role in changing customers’ attitudes because customers have different attitudes and it could be positive or negative attitudes. Attitudes are erudite from past experiences which may relate to the product itself, brand and purchasing decision. According to Hughes and Fill (2007) â€Å"attitudes are defined as the expression of an individual’s feeling towards a product, service or organisation†. Customers’ attitudes could not be observed directly but it can be detected by using market research methods. There are three main components of attitudes which are cognitive (learn) that is; what target audience know about the product or service, affective (feel) is what they feel about the product or service and conative (do) is about the action taken based on their knowledge and feelings. This essay will cover information processing models, attitudes formation and change, and customers’ response behaviour. There are different models that could be used to communicate to both customers and potential customers. These models are AIDA principle (Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action) (Blythe 2006), McGuire’s information processing models (Shimp 1997), AILA models and hierarchy of effects model are used by organisations to communicate messages to the customers or potential buyers (Blythe 2006). The AIDA model lacks in the retention ability of the consumers, also quite simplistic. This will allow the author to focus on McGuire’s information processing model which emphasis on the retention, which is very important in a communication campaign. Shimp (1997:118) identify the stages of McGuire’s information Processing model which are; Exposure to information, Selective attention, comprehension of attended information, agreement with comprehended information, retention in memory of accepted information, retrieval of information from memory, consumer decision making from alternatives and action taking on the basis of decision. These points will be discussed below. However, the first stage is to expose the information to consumers, that is; consumers should be aware of the messages being delivered. â€Å"Exposure means that customers come in contact with the marketer’s message (they see a magazine ad, hear a radio commercial, and so on)† (Shimp, 1997 p.118). Thus, this stage is a crucial stage because it is necessary for consumers to be aware of the messages but it does not guarantee communication success in the sense that the message might not have any impact on consumers. The next stage is selective attention. Consumers attend to a message being aware of and reflect on a message. However, attention is extremely selective because not all the messages being exposed to would consumers pay attention to; consumers could only pay attention to the advertisement that is relevant to them. Therefore â€Å"selective attention occurs as a result of limited mental ability to process information; ego-defence; the personal relevance of the information to which the individual is exposed; and limited motivation to process† (Kitchen, 1999 p.161). Moreover, consumer needs to comprehend what is attended to. This means that, the message which has been attended to must be clearly understood by consumers that is, consumers should be able to understand and interpret the message. Therefore marketing communicators have to ensure they comprehend customer interpretations and their messages reflect them. However, having comprehended the message, consumers need to agree with what they have understood in the message. Though, this does not guarantee that the message will change consumers’ attitudes or influence their actions, the agreement could only state whether the message is reliable or not with the values that are essential to consumers. Furthermore, the next stage of information processing is message retention, search and retrieval. This involves consumers’ ability to retain and recall the message and how customers could access and retrieve information/message when making buying decision. However, marketing communicators need to ensure that the messages enter customers’ long term memory by highlighting the benefits, and where messages can be retrieved to influence future decision†¦ (Kitchen, 1999). The next stage is for customers to decide among alternatives that is, which product or brand to purchase. However, at this point it is not always easy for customers to decide on what brand or product to purchase because consumers might have stored different information in term of facts, beliefs, and benefits and so on in their long term memory about each product or brand. It is possible for consumers to recall from his or her memory attitude toward relevant alternatives and pick the one that affect individual positively. However, Shimp (1997) stated that when making choices under nondominant situations, consumers must give something up in order to get something else. That is, high involvement decision making most always requires that trade-off be made. The last stage in information processing is for consumers to act on the basis of the decision. For consumers to act positively toward the brand or product, marketing communicators must make use of communication tools especially sales promotion such as BOGOF-buy one get one free, discounts and so on. Moreover all marketing communication tools must be coordinated and integrated in order to get consumers act fast. Thus, having gone through information processing model, the author believes that this information processing could form consumers’ attitudes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚ 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 Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚ 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 Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dibb et al (1997) also defined attitude as an individual’s enduring evaluation, feelings and behavioural tendencies towards an object or activity. Blythe (2006) states attitudes can be formed by translating customer’s needs into motivation to process information, and consequent exposure to stimulus and the processing of this information leads to cognitive responses and affective responses which may lead to conation, or intended behaviour of a customer. This means that customers learn about a product, they feel and take either positive or negative action based on what they’ve learnt. Cognitive, affective and conative are the three main components of attitude identified by Fill (2009). These three components tend to be consistent that is, a change in one attitude component tends to create related changes in other components (Botha et al, 2004). Cognitive component is about customers understanding or knowledge about a product, brand or service. Customers and potential customers tend to learn more about the products they intend to buy. For example, when a customer lack information or misunderstand a brand or product attribute, marketing communication must play a significant role by providing right or up to date information about the product or service and this will facilitate customers to learn and allow them to see the clear picture (truth) of the product, information should be rational that is, it must be based on facts. However, â€Å"it is important that the level and quality of the information provided is appropriate to the intellectual capabilities of the target audience† (Fill, 2009:153). In order for customers to learn more about a product or brand, marketing communication tools must be adopted such as advertising or public relations. These will create awareness, give full information about the product and infl uence the way customers see a product. Although while advertising is said to be more sophisticated in order to stimulate demand, consumers do fear the manipulative and subliminal techniques that is used (Heath and Heath 2008) cited (Pollay and Mittal 1993). Affective component has to do with customers’ feeling about a product or service. It is possible for customers to feel positive or negative about a product or brand. However, it is important that customers have positive attitude toward a product or brand because this will prompt both existing and potential customers to buy the product or brand but when customers develop negative attitude to a product or brand, this would be difficult to change therefore information provided for customers at this stage should be emotional rather than rational approach because emotional messages could be used to change customer’s feeling and their interest to use the product or brand. For example a tone of a voice, attractive colours, suitable music, style and so on. All these could be used to generate emotional disposition about a product or brand. Furthermore, conative component signifies the result of the cognitive and affective components whether to buy or not to buy the product (Botha et al, 2004). This means that customers take action based on their knowledge and feelings whether to accept or reject the product/brand. Fill (2009:155) states that â€Å"a conative approach stimulates people to try, test, trial, visit (a showroom or website) a brand usually free and often without overt commitment.† This involves the customers to try the products/services before beliefs or feelings are changed  either negative or positive about the products/services and this can be achieved through marketing communication tools such as sales promotion, direct marketing or personal selling. These tools can be used to force behavioral change for example sales promotion prompts customers to try a product or brand, direct marketing promotes a response from customers and engages in interaction, and personal selling remind the customers abo ut the benefits and persuade them to take positive actions. However, sale promotion for example could be by given free samples of the product to customers or organize an open days where potential customers and their families partakes in trial sections. Thus, at this stage the priority of marketing communications is to change customers’ attitudes in line with organization culture and this must be continuous and ongoing  process which takes time. Marketing communications can change customers’ negative attitudes into positive attitudes. Attitude towards a certain brand or product/ services are quite important dimension since they affect consumer’s tendency to purchase. It has to be emphasized that attitude is often difficult to change, with a coordinated communication campaign, this can be changed overtime. For example, if a consumer is of the view that smoking kills, no amount of persuasive information or advertisement can change such believe. According to Fill (2009) there are different techniques used by marketing communication to change customers’ attitudes. The author will explain these below: Firstly, marketing communication can be used to change customers’ misunderstanding. It is possible to change customers’ misunderstanding about a product or brand through product demonstration and functionality. For instance, if a potential customer have a negative impression or misunderstand the benefits of a product, communication campaign could be done to correct this impression by changing the packaging or the name of the product. Secondly, marketing communication can be used to change customers’ performance beliefs. Customers’ attitudes about a product or service can be change through appropriate marketing communication campaign for example, if a product presentation is in doubt, marketing communication could be used to provide   right information to correct the misperception. Also, marketing communication can be used to change consumer priorities. For example, if customers are too focused on one feature of the service or product say price for example without recognizing the variety of benefits it gets, a communication campaign could be used to change this attitude. Furthermore, marketing communication can be used to change the physical product element by modifying or reformulating the product. Using communication campaign might change consumer’s attitude and perception. Marketing communication campaign can also be used to change competitor’s perception- Changing the way competitor’s products are perceived by customers can differentiate the company brand positively. Lastly, change attributes priorities can be used to change attitudes that is, initiating a strategy to differentiate attribute can change attitudes. For example, by stressing the importance of ethical organisations behaviour such as cause related marketing and giving back to the community or third world countries, over rival competitors who stresses on innovation. Having gone through attitude formation and change, there are some models to consider in customer’s behaviour response to marketing communication. One of the models is AIDA model which will be discussed below. Procter et al .(1982) cited by Ayanwale et al (2005) states that the principal aim of consumer behaviour analysis is to explain why consumers act in a particular way under certain circumstances. Barry and Howard (1990) cited in Egan (2007) also states â€Å"that proponent of the traditional hierarchy framework suggest that customers respond to message in a very ordered way that is cognitively (thinking), then affectively (feeling) and conative (doing).† This means that customers respond based on what they know and their feelings about the product or service. Yorke and Littler (2011) assumed that learning about a product will lead to customers’ feeling about the product that results in the buy of the product. Also, stated that it is a learn-feel-buy model of consumer responses to marketing communications. This also means consumers response to marketing communications based on what they know, feel about the product or brand then take action. However, AIDA is one of the models of marketing communication based on a hierarchy of effects. Blythe (2006) states that AIDA is an easy model of consumer response to marketing communications and it stands for Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action. These are four steps marketing communicator needs to take customers through before they buy a product or brand. Moreover, cognitive component signifying that marketing communicator must get customer’s attention first before doing anything and this could be done for example using powerful words, music or pictures that will grab customer’s attention. Developing interest and desire to buy a product or brand are parts in the affective component, that is, where positive attitude toward the product or service required. The last stage is action which is the conative component where customers and potential customers take action, that is, to buy or not to buy the product. Yorke and Littler (2011) also assumed that progression logically through the AIDA stages is not always possible it depends on the product or service being offered and the target customers. However, attitude influences purchase decision. In some cases exposure to certain brand(s) through advertisement message may tempt the consumer to purchase the product, if the consumer on the other hand is dissatisfied with the purchase, or does not match the expected promises or requirement from the advertisement, then a process known as dissonance occurs. If this happens the advertised message will be viewed in a different way. In conclusion, marketing communications play a significant role in changing customers’ attitude and influence customers’ behaviour. Having considered McGuire’s information processing model, attitude formation and change and also consumer’s response behaviour, it could be said that customer’s attitude is not easy to change. This means attitude can be complex and difficult to study because different customer have different attitude for example, customer’s attitude A towards a product or brand may be different to customer’s attitude B. Attitude can be inferred from customer’s behavioural pattern or by creating a group of discussion to observe the consumers, or by simply using market research methods. Marketing communicators should understand customer’s behavior in order to provide them with right information. REFERENCES    Ayanwale, A. B., Alimi, T. and Ayanbimpe, M. (2005) ‘The influence of advertising on consumer brand preference.’ Journal of Social Science, Vol. 10, pp.9-16 Blythe, J. (2006) Essentials of marketing communications, 3rd edn. FT Prentice Hall. Botha, J., Strydom, J., and Brink, A. (2004) Introduction to marketing, 3rd edn. Juta and Co Limited, South Africa. Dibb, S., Simkin, L., Pride, W.M., and Ferrell, O.C (1997) Marketing, 3rd edn. Houghton Mifflin. Egan, J., (2007) Marketing communications, Thomson learning, Bedford Row. Fill, C. (2009) Marketing Communications: Interactivity, communities and content, 5th edn. Harlow, FT Prentice Hall. Heath, M.T. and Heath, M. (2008) ‘(Mis)trust in marketing: a reflection on consumers attitudes and perception’ Journal of marketing management Vol. 24, pp 1025-1039. Hughes, G. and Fill, C. (2007) Marketing communications, 1st edn. Butterworth- Heinemann. Kitchen, P.J. (1994) Marketing communication: Principles and Practice 1st edn. Thomson Business Press, Cornwall. Shimp, T.A (1997) Advertising, Promotion, and Supplemental Aspects of Integrated Marketing Communications, 4th edn. Dryden Press. Yorke, D. and Littler, D. (2011) AIDA Model [Online] Available from: blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9780631233176_chunk_g97814051025444_ss1-1 {Accessed 17 March 2011}

The Competitive Advantages of Apple Inc Literature review

The Competitive Advantages of Apple Inc - Literature review Example John Wiley & Sons. 15 Bibliography 17 Literature Review Interrelationship between Leadership and Organizational Commitment In the year 1993, Drucker had mentioned that the performance and quality of the managers are significant influential factor to decide organizational success. A company without effective leadership would not be able to transform the internal resources to its competitive advantage. It would not be denied that there is a close relationship among the leadership style and organization development. In the year 1990, Bass made one study in which it was pretty observable that around 45 % to 65 % of the total factors which are responsible of causing either success or failure would be decided by the organizational leaders. Definition of Leadership Leadership is an ability to persuade any group towards the attainment of goals. In the year 1964, Tannenbaum and others have considered leadership as an influential factor in human relations. Leadership is an attribute guiding a group of people to achieve preset goals through communication. According to Fiedler, leadership can be assumed to be a type of relationship to make the group members work together and achieve common goal. Rauch and Behling in 1984 and Hsieh in the year 1993 considered leadership as a process to influence any group to approach the goals. Theories of Leadership Since twentieth century, a number of theories and literature had been introduced to prove different standpoints. Four major perspectives had been shown through these theories. Some of the theories are articulated in the later segment (Wu et. al., 2006, p.438- 440). Trait Theories According to Stogdill (1963) and Davis (1972), a successful leader must posses certain personality traits. Behavior Theories In 1957, Halpin and Winer had introduced two dimensions, initiating consideration and structure. Following the same, a number of studies conducted by Stogdill, Likert and Kotter also introduced certain behavioral attributes of le adership. Contingency Theories In the year 1967, Fiedler has introduced the contingency model of leadership. In the year 1971, House came up with a path-goal theory by extracting details from the research carried out by Ohio State University as well as the expectancy theory of motivation. In the year 1977, Blackchard and Hersey introduced situational leadership theory considering two leadership sides in terms of relationship behaviors and tasks and mix and matching the intensity of these two to come up with specific leadership types: selling, telling, delegating and participating. As per Contingency theory, the leaders of any group are required to opt for an appropriate leadership style considering the readiness of the following group. The selling style can be effective for willing but unable subordinates; while, the telling styles can reap good results for the unwilling and unable followers. Leaders usually use participating style when his or her followers are willing but unable. T he delegating style seems to be good for followers who are able but unwilling to do the tasks (Wu et. al., 2006, p.438- 440). Non Charismatic Theories: These theories include the theories on transformational and transactional leadership styles. These two are pretty well known in the arenas of leadership theories. According to the transactional leadership theory, both superior as well as the subordinate would influence each other to derive value of that exchange. Transactional leader

Can anarchism be a viable political system Essay

Can anarchism be a viable political system - Essay Example It can as well be full of wreck of all order, wars and murder of all kind but no one is held accountable for all that (Suissa, 2010,pg 56). But anarchist do believe that anarchism always begin with a view that individuals are naturally good, and that the external authority such as; governments, laws, institutions among others are the ones that limit potentials and results into bad behaviors. Anarchists are against all forms of government or any coercive authority and hierarchical control. This led to the emergence of theories which were against the oppression and inequality in the society of all forms. The class struggle as a result of enslavement of the labour force and their aspiration to liberty gave rise to idea of anarchism. Most anarchist theories aimed at creating a classless and a stateless society. They were against Marxist theory whose main agenda was to be aware of the discrimination and repression, why they existed, their origin, what role they play an how to overcome the m. To understand all these they needed to explain them historically. Marxism begins by looking into the origin of class and state; according to them, the different classes in the society are as a result of struggle for existence which is unavoidable (Vodovnik, 2012, pg 43). This puts an individual in chains and yet people are born free. Their dependence on nature and struggle for the economization of labour therefore forces them to walk up and down in search for work from the capitalist. Those who own the means of production, they maintain the social order by oppressing the laborers. The state authority is therefore developed to maintain economic inequality and play a fundamental role in the society. Anarchists are opposed capitalism for being exploitative as well as authoritative. Where workers do not govern themselves in the production process nor do they have control over the product of their labour. Most of the capitalists if not all get them involved in the government, this a r esult of states getting their powers from the ruling economic class, whom in turn are served by protecting their property and generally maintaining the status quo (Chomsky & Otero,2004,pg 54). Since the state of power literally depends on the economic relations of a given state, therefore it is upon the bourgeoisie to revolt against the government. This is only possible if they come together and democratically develop an economy based on their own interest, they form workers’ committees to represent their wishes, and this would enable them to take control of their state apparatus whenever they need. But anarchists seek to bring about a condition of anarchy with a decentralized society that is organized through federation of voluntary associations (Glasberg & Shannon,2011, pg 62). They are opposed to all forms of religious power, the state as well as free enterprise economy. Their view on the representation kind of government is that it is the root cause of the challenges face d by the people. According to the anarchists, the state of anarchism promotes the dissolution of a state and the governmental tools that brings about oppression and inequality. They do this through rejecting the few elites who hold powers in their hands and misuse them (Dorra, 1995, 81). Their argument is that each and every individual in the society should be responsible for their own behavior, the community and the society. Everyone should be liberated

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Solar cells - Research Paper Example Most of the energy sources we are using at present are nonrenewable in nature. Fossil fuel energy and nuclear energy are the popular energy sources at present; however, these energy sources are not only getting exhausted but also causing problems to the environment. Moreover these energy sources are non-renewable in nature. On the other hand, solar energy is a renewable energy source. But the technologies available to exploit solar energy is not developed properly yet. Whatever the solar energy exploitation technologies available now are expensive compared to the other energy sources and hence still we are relying on conventional energy sources such as coal, fossil fuel, nuclear energy etc. However, solar energy seems to be the most important renewable energy source which may help us to solve our energy crisis in future. â€Å"Solar energy systems consisting of solar collectors, sensible energy storage and a closed loop flow circuit† (Garg & Garg, p.75). Solar panels represent solar collectors and sensible energy storage means photovoltaic cells or sola r cells. Solar is cell is an equipment which converts solar energy into electrical energy. Photovoltaic cells are currently used to operate solar devices. Photovoltaic cells contain certain chemicals which may undergo chemical reactions (Photovoltaic effect) in the presence of solar energy to produce electricity. Solar panels collect energy from solar radiations and transmit it to the solar cells which convert this energy into chemical energy first and then to electrical energy when required. An inverter helps the transmission of electrical energy from solar cells to the electrical circuits when needed. It is believed that solar energy can solve the energy crisis up to certain extent if utilized properly. It should be forgotten than the solar energy exploitation technology is highly expensive. However, sunny cities and wealthy rural areas can think about the

Salt Concentrations on Germination of Seeds

Salt Concentrations on Germination of Seeds Through my research, I decided to use rye, oats and barley seeds because due to the increasing salinity problems, there would be future food shortages due to global warming damaging crops and the increasing human population. The seeds were treated with different salt concentration solutions of sodium chloride, magnesium sulphate, calcium sulphates and bicarbonates. A Chi Squared test was done to find the relationship between each of the different salts concentrations and the germination rate. Experimental Hypothesis: Increasing the concentration of NaCl (sodium chloride) will have the biggest decrease in the number of germinations compared to increasing the other salt concentrations. Null Hypothesis: Increasing the salt concentration will have no effect on the germination of seeds. Dependent Variable: Seed germination rate Independent Variable: The salt solutions and salt concentration Through my intensive research I discovered there were currently major environmental factors regarding to the lack of plant productivity for crop production regions, but through this research I discovered one of the main factors was salinity in soil. Salinity in soil is a major issue for growing crops for most regions of the planet, especially the dry regions where the seed would lack water to grow. The farmers wont be able to cultivate their own crops due to seeds not being able to germinate as crop yield is decreased. However in some cases, if the seed does manage to germinate, the plant would often grow with many ion deficiencies. During my research I discovered a theory, which involved germinating a seed in seawater and it was told it had a huge effect on the seed. So I did research on seawater and compared and I discovered it had variety of different ions dissolved within the water. Furthermore, I also discovered that NaCl (sodium Chloride) was the most abundant ion dissolved in the seawater [6]. To test my hypothesis I will be using 3 types of cereal seeds, which are barley, oats, and rye seeds. Barley crops are very adaptable and can germinate very quickly between 1 to 3 days. Barley is normally grown in the temperate areas as a summer crop, but in the tropical regions its sown as a winter crop. However, Barley is more tolerant than other cereal seeds to soil salinity and also more susceptible to plant diseases [9]. Oats has may uses in food, so its vital to continue the supply for oats in the future, as global warming could affect the yield of oats produced, as oat seeds have greater tolerance of rain than any other cereal [8]. Furthermore, it has a lower summer heat requirement, which is why its more grown throughout the temperate zones, for example Northwest Europe and Iceland. Rye grows really well in much poorer soils than most necessary cereal grains, as its the most valuable crop in some regions. Rye withstands cold better than most grains, so farmers normally grow r ye in the winter, as in spring the crop finally develops [7]. During the 1800s, researchers discovered that plants absorb essential minerals as inorganic ions in water. So basically soil acts as a mineral nutrient reservoir, but the soil isnt essential for plant growth. The plant roots only absorb nutrients and minerals when the nutrient mineral in the soil has been dissolved in water, so its the same as a plant absorbing the mineral nutrients as inorganic ions. If the required mineral nutrients have been introduced artificially into the plants water supply, the soil isnt required any longer, this is called a Hydroponic. Most terrestrial plants (plants grown on land) can survive or grow using a hydroponic. [3] The advantages of using Hydroponics for food production are: no soil is required water stays within the system and can then be reused which will therefore lowering water costs Can be able to lower to control nutrition levels, which can also reduce nutrition costs Because of the controlled system, no nutrition pollution is released into the atmosphere Stable and high yields Pests and diseases are easier to get rid of because of the containers mobility Can be used in possible places where in-ground agriculture or gardening isnt possible [3] However there are disadvantages of using Hydroponics for food production such as: Since hydroponics conditions consists the presence of fertilisers and high humidity, it creates an environment that stimulates salmonella growth Pathogens attacks including damp-off due to Verticillium wilt caused by high moisture levels associated with hydroponics and overwatering of terrestrial plants. Many hydroponic plants requires different fertilisers and containment systems, which can be very time-consuming and expensive for someone thats setting the whole hydroponic [3] From my knowledge, I know that plant roots up take mineral nutrients by active transport. Active Transport is the movement of a substance against the concentration gradient using energy as ATP. Examples of substance which can also be taken up by active transport are ions, glucose and amino acids. Nonetheless, in my investigation I will also be looking at Osmosis and seeing so its affected throughout my investigation. Osmosis is the diffusion of water (movement of water) across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of a less negative water potential to an even more negative water potential area and this process a non-passive process (doesnt require energy in the form of ATP). The reason Im going to look at the effect of Osmosis throughout my investigation is because according to Muhammad Jamils journal Effect of salt stress on germination and early seedling growth of four vegetables species. It was stated in the journal that salt concentrations is a major contributor to the osmotic e ffect of ions on growth. Furthermore, it was also stated that high salt in the environment could lead to loss of water from cells which the cell undergoes plasmolysis, which even could lead to the death of the cell [5]. Seed Germination is the process in which the plant emerges from a seed or spore and begins growth. Seed germination depends on both internal and external conditions. The most important external factors include water (required for vigorous metabolism), temperature, oxygen and light or even darkness. The structure of the seed consists of a seed coat, which is the covering of the seed, which protects it from any kind of injury, and also the entry of parasites and prevents it from drying. Within the seed theres an endosperm, which is a temporary food supply thats packed around the embryo in the form of cotyledons or even seed leaves. Plants are classed as monocots or dicots depending on the number of cotyledons. The seeds which Im going to use (rye, oats and barley seeds) are monocotyledons. [2] Several factors which prevent the germination of seed include: Over watering can prevent the plant to get enough oxygen Dry conditions can prevent germination, as the seed wont get enough moisture If the seed has very hard coat not enough oxygen and water will be able to get through it Soil temperature can also effect the germination process, regardless of whether its too high or too low [2] Monocotyledon is one of the two major groups of the flowering plants, well other being dicotyledons. Heres a table comparing the two major groups of the flowering plants: Feature Monocotyledon Dicotyledons Number of parts of each flower In threes In four or fives Number of pores in pollen One Two Number of Cotyledons (leaves in the seed) One Two Arrangement of Vascular Bundles In The Stem Scattered Concentric Circles Roots Adventitious Develop from Radical Arrangement of major leaf veins Parrell Reticulate [10] [1] The steps of seed germination: Seed absorbs water and the seed coat bursts. Theres an activation of enzymes, increase in respiration and plant cells get duplicated. A chain of chemical changes starts, which leads to the development of the plant embryo. Chemical energy stored in the form of starch is converted to sugar, which is used during the later stages of the germination process. Soon the plant embryo gets enlarged and the seed coat bursts open. Growing plant emerges out. Tip of root first emerges and helps to anchor the seed in place. Also allows the plant embryo to absorb minerals and water from the soil. If a monocotyledon plant, the primary root emerges from the seed and fruit and grows down. The primary plants primary leaf grows up. Its protected by a cylindrical, hollow structure called coleoptiles. Once the seedlings have grown above the soil surface, the growth of coleoptiles is stopped and its pierced by a primary leaf. [2]

The History of the Coffeehouse :: essays research papers

The first coffeehouse the world had ever seen was founded in Constantinople, just becoming Istanbul in 1475. It was such a huge success that right after it opened, two more appeared. So began a fascination with coffee that would last 300 more years. The reason the first coffeehouse did not open in, say, England, was location. Since Turkey was only a quick sail away from the original brewer of coffee, Arabia, traders could get the coffee to the city with minimal effort. The Europeans were completely out of the coffee trading loop until coffee began to make it’s way into the hands of Venetian traders, leading the Italians to be the first Europeans to found coffeehouses. Slowly, coffeehouses came to open in England as well, the first opening in 1652. However, there was still the problem of transporting all that coffee from Turkey or the Middle East, a costly business. This problem was solved when the Turks, defeated in battle, left sacks upon sacks of the flavorful beans behind i n parts of Europe. This created an abundance of coffee houses in Vienna, where there was large amounts of this left-behind coffee. Eventually, the storehouses began to run low on coffee, now very much in demand with the Europeans. You may be wondering, why didn’t they just grow some coffee? First of all, the merchants who sold the beans knew this, and sold the beans in non growing conditions (such as already ground up.) Secondly, people did try to grow coffee- but on European soil, the beans that were usable floundered and died. If they managed to get usable coffee beans at all, (it was illegal to get them) you wouldn’t have nearly enough to support even the smallest coffeehouse for a week. The Dutch trading companies knew all this, but they came up with a new, radical notion- why not get some beans, but grow them not in Europe but in the East Indies! So the Dutch smuggled a small amount of un ground or processed coffee beans out of the Arabian port of Mocha, then shipped them to Ceylon and the East Indies for cultivation. 30 years later, a French naval officer named Gabriel De Clieu sailed for the Caribbean island of Martinique. When he arrived, he happened to be carrying some un cultivated coff ee beans. (We’ll never know how those got there.) He casually sold it to the locals, unwittingly starting one of the world’s largest coffee producers.

Food Chain, Food Web and Ecological Pyramid

GAYATRI VIDYA PARISHAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (AUTONOMOUS) MADHUARAWADA, VISAKHAPATNAM – 530048 ASSIGNMENT SUBMITTED TO: S. V. RAMANA ————————————————- DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH NAME OF THE STUDENT: VAMSI KRISHNA G ROLL NUMBER:12131A0533 TITLE OF THE ASSIGNMENT: TECHNOLOGY ON EDUCATION ————————————————- DATE OF SUBMISSION: 15-04-2013 INTRODUCTION: The impact of technology on education is immense.In olden days students used to get confined to libraries for any information on the topics given to them but now a days the technology has been improved , students carry portable devices with them such as laptops, mobiles etc. they are also provided with Ebooks which are much more advanced than the textbooks. KEY POINTS: 1. As the technology have been increased producti vity tools such as databases, spreadsheets, graphic programs etc allow students to independently organize, analyze, interpret, develop, their own work 2.Projectors are playing a major role in an students life as teachers have adopted e learning techniques due to which students are understanding the concepts easily. It has lessen the burden of a teacher 3. Technology have been increased so well that the application of scientific calculators have lessen the burden of the engineering students. 4. students can set up language lessons with a native speaker who lives in another country and attend the lessons via videoconferencing 5.With a simple assignment and access to technology, researching and also producing a product that would communicate, students are able to do deep learning on a concept that wasn’t even addressed in their textbook, and allow other people to view it and learn from it. 6. E-books is an electronic device which consists of a lot of information more than a text book. Hence e-book has replaced the textbook . 7. 3D learning has become a reality especially for medical , architech , biology students as it increases their understanding and are able to grasp the concept very easily. . Now a days students are not restricted to libraries and classrooms as they are equipped with portable learning devices such as laptops, pendrives, smartphones etc. 9. In olden days students used to refer a number of books by going to library but now students can get any information on any topic on web for example Wikipedia. 10. Assistive technology can help students who have mental retardation along with students who are low performers, at-risk students or have any learning disability. 11.There are a number of websites such as expert tutorials, mock testes, online testes which increase the confidence of the students facing any type of exams. 12. Presently, classroom learning is increasingly dependent on the integration of technology thus enhancing learning. The cur rent technology uses email systems, data processing and laptop audio/videos webinars. 13. youtube is a great example for homegrown ingenuity as it has many different venues such as entertainment, learning and even commercialization of products. 14.The improvement in technology has been a great help to students in many fields for instance, in the field of fashion technology , one can use different colour patterns , 3D designing etc. so that they can have immediate evaluation. 15. The textbooks have also become very attractive with fine quality and much more advanced than the olden day’s textbooks, which help the students to update the information accurately. 16. In olden days students used to write the information from different textbooks which was a time taking process but now a days students can get any type of information printed instead of writing. 7. Students can incoperate pictures,matter with the help of scanner in their presentation. 18. Open air class room techniques have been implemented so that students engage in hands on learning related to nature topics. 19. Virtual reality technology is an important tool for the monitoring anomalies in structures and to assist decisions based on visual analysis of alternative solutions. It is mostly used in civil engineering. 20. The technology has made it possible for the distance education students to persue degree with good universities.CONCLUSION: Hence increase in technology has brought a great change in education. Students are getting more confident and are able to face the world with no fear. Computers assist in education by providing a wide range of resources, and by tailoring instruction to the individual student, which can seldom be done in the normal classroom. VAMSI KRISHNA G 15-04-2013 SIGNATURE (WITH DATE)

Fern Hill Essays - Film, Cinema Of The United States, Literature

Fern Hill Essays - Film, Cinema Of The United States, Literature Fern Hill The poem Fern Hill by Dylan Thomas explores childhood memories and the melancholy reality of lost youth. Fern Hill compels the reader to come back over and over again to seek more insight into the joy and pleasure of a time of innocence lost. The figurative speech causes the reader to seek the elusive youth and boyhood days of the character and encourages the reader to mourn and celebrate with the writer for the once glorious days of his youth. From the opening line, the memories of boyhood days are revealed. The writer recalls his carefree life. A beautiful playground, a wooded valley full of apple orchards and fresh green meadows, which bring the boy great happiness, happy as the grass was green, can be visualized. Each line is full of boyhood memories. The boy, as many young innocent boys do, pretends many things in his playground, his cloistered world. It is his golden time, his heyday to be young and carefree, to pretend to be prince of the apple towns. There is a sense of such joy in this time in his life; he sings, happily in his home on the farm. And yet amidst this joyful memory, is a sense of sadness as we realize youth and innocence does not last. This reality and sadness begins to become mingled with the joyful memory as we read, in the sun that is young once only, time let me play and be golden in the mercy of his means. Blended with this awareness of reality, more boyhood memories are offered; memories of pretending to behuntsman and herdsman. All our senses are beckoned into the pleasures of this joyful time in the boys life, we are invited to hear the sounds of the calves singing and the foxes barking clearly and coldly, as he plays his horn. We are welcomed to sense the lovely calmness of sabbath days that seem to be slow and quiet as a babbling brook. We are encouraged to visualize the hay fields, as high as the house; to hear the sounds of the wind whistling through the chimneys. We are swept away into our own memories of childhood bedtime, as we are beckoned to hear the valley's sounds, owls, nightjars, and horses prancing in the corral in the dark. A sense of peace and awe is evoked as the writer remembers awaking each morning to the sight of the farm, the meadow white with dew, the sounds of the rooster crowing, the horses whinnying as they walked out of the stables on to the warm, sunny fields. Then the poem brings us back to the present reality; the young and carefree believe they will live forever, that life will always be this carefree; Under the new made clouds and happy as the heart was long, in the sun born over and over, I ran my heedless ways. The reality of life is that life is all too short, that the joy and innocence of youth is all too brief; Nothing I cared, in the lamb white days, that time would take me up to the swallow thronged loft by the shadow of my hand, in the moon that is always rising, nor that riding to sleep I should hear him fly with the high fields and wake to the farm forever fled from the childless land. The last three lines of the poem bring us to the poignant reality of the joys and sadness of life, Oh as I was young and easy in the mercy of his means, time held me green and dying though I sang in my chains like the sea. All good things must come to an end, and when they do you will look back on the times that you had and wish that it was that way forever. To conclude, this poem helps us to appreciate both the joys and the sadness of life. It is in the remembering that we can cherish the joys of what was; it is in the same memories we can be sad for that which is no more, and it is in knowing both, that we realize that we can live life to the fullest. It has something to do with ageing. Dylan Thomas is looking back at his childhood as being carefree and happy as time let him do what he pleased but the whole time he was getting closer to death.

Ryanair vs. Easyjet Corporate and Competitive Strategy Analysis

Ryanair vs. Easyjet Corporate and Competitive Strategy Analysis Introduction There are many low-cost airlines in the world. In Europe, major airline companies, such as Flybe, Wizz Air and Aer Lingus, dominate this space (Dobruszkes 2006). Jet2, Ryanair, and Easyjet are other dominant airline companies in this category.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Ryanair vs. Easyjet: Corporate and Competitive Strategy Analysis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Within this space, Ryanair and Easyjet are the two biggest low-cost airlines in the region (Elderman 2014; Dowling 2010). The two airlines are also the most popular low-cost airlines in Europe. Ryanair is an older airline company than Easyjet because its operations started in 1985, while Easyjet’s operations started in 1995 (Freire 2014). Ryanair has evolved from a family owned business into one of the most successful regional brands in the market. The company brands itself as â€Å"Europe’s only ultra low-cost airlinerâ⠂¬  because it is the region’s largest low-cost airline company (Mayer 2008). From 67 operational bases, Ryanair makes more than 1,600 flights daily. It also flies to more than 180 destinations in Europe (Mayer 2008). These destinations spread across 29 different countries in the region. Easyjet is Ryanair’s main rival. Based at London’s Luton Airport, the company travels to more than 700 destinations and has a market presence in more than 30 countries (Mayer 2008). Compared to other leading airlines in the short-haul market segment, the two airlines are among the top ten aviation companies with the highest passenger numbers in Europe. The following table shows this fact. Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Figure One: Position of Easyjet and Ryanair in the global low-cost airline market (Source: Elderman 2014) This paper analyses the corporate a nd competitive strategies of Ryanair and Easyjet. However, to get a correct understanding of this assessment, this paper demonstrates how both companies create value for their shareholders and reveals the strategic choices pursued by both organisations. In later sections of the study, this paper shows the operational areas where the organisational strategies of both organisations converge and diverge. What are the Competitive Positions of both Organisations? Ryanair enjoys a dominant market share in the European low-cost airline market because it was among the first companies to adopt this strategy in the region (Malighetti et al. 2006). However, because it could not protect this strategic approach from duplication by other airline companies, it lost a significant market share to other companies, such as Easyjet. Relative to this development, Ryanair has also adopted a â€Å"red ocean† strategy where it â€Å"steals† customers from other market segments (predominantly the customers of major airlines) (Thomson Baden-Fuller 2010). For example, it has â€Å"stolen† customers in the business class segment (Malighetti et al. 2006). Since the company has succeeded by adopting this strategy, it has proved that a differentiated market strategy is still vulnerable to competition. Researchers such as Kim and Mauborgne (cited in Thomson Baden-Fuller 2010) have always supported a differentiated strategy, but these developments have proved them wrong.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Ryanair vs. Easyjet: Corporate and Competitive Strategy Analysis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Therefore, a differentiated strategy is not exclusive. Nonetheless, Ryanair commands a stronger market share than Easyjet does. Concisely, Easyjet trails Ryanair air by commanding 31% of the market in the low-cost Airline sector (Air France 2011). Comparatively, Ryanair commands 40% of the market (Air France 2011). This is the biggest market share in the European low-cost airline sector. The diagram below shows the current market shares of Ryanair and Easyjet in the European low-cost market. Figure Two: Ryanair and Easyjet market share (Source: Air France 2011) According to the diagram above, other low-cost airlines command only 29% of the market, while Ryanair and Easyjet dominate the rest of the market. The dominant market share enjoyed by Ryanair also mirrors its high customer traffic because, compared to Easyjet, the company carries 4.5 million passengers, annually, while its rival carries 3,000,000 passengers annually (Dowling 2010). Based on the strategies adopted by Ryanair and Easyjet, it is important to point out that competition determines the success or failure of the strategic approaches adopted by low-cost airlines.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More How do the Two Organisations Create Value for their Shareholders Mennen (2005) says it is important for low-cost airlines to adopt a low-cost structure if they want to create value for their shareholders. This affirmation aligns with the goal of Ryanair, which is â€Å"to firmly set up itself as Europe’s leading low-fare scheduled passenger airline through continuous improvements and expanded offerings of its low-fares service† (Freire 2014, p. 4). Easyjet also strives to become a market leader in the low-cost market segment. Both airlines create value for the shareholders in the following ways. Reinvestment Ryanair and Easyjet have always strived to support their market dominance by increasing passenger traffic through cost containment (Mayer 2008). The companies have also strived to support their leadership positions and create value for their shareholders by maintaining operation efficiencies. Profit reinvestment is a common way that the airlines create value for th eir shareholders (Mennen 2005). For example, Easyjet has managed to do so by using the company’s profits to increase its fleet size and expand into new routes (Mennen 2005). The company has also adopted the same strategy to improve passenger comfort and expand its operational network. Ryanair has also used the same strategy to meet the same goals (Mayer 2008). In this regard, both airlines have reported increased asset values and increased growth figures. Managing Competition According to Dobruszkes (2006), the relative success, or failure, of low-cost airlines lies in two factors – cost leadership and differentiation. Ryanair’s market strategy has focused on cost leadership because it strives to become the best company in the low-cost market segment (Mayer 2008; Thomson Baden-Fuller 2010). Even with these adjustments, the company has still increased its passenger numbers and remained profitable for a long time. The success of this strategy has always depended on the control and management of the four facets of cost management in the aviation sector – â€Å"employee management, equipment and maintenance, customer service costs, and airport handling costs† (Thomson Baden-Fuller 2010, p. 26). By managing and controlling competition in the sector, both Ryanair and Easyjet have generated superior values for their investors. This view affirms the opinions of researchers who say price leadership is pivotal to creating market dominance, compared to cost leadership advantages (Mayer 2008). Market Strength Alignment Focusing on market strength is also another tenet of the airlines’ competitive strategies. For example, Easyjet has maximised its productivity by operating in airports where it enjoys market leadership (CAPA 2014). Half of its seating capacity is in such facilities. Since it trails Ryanair in market strength, in some airports, the company has allocated 29% of its seats to such facilities (CAPA 2014). Ryanair has a lso focused on creating value for its shareholders by focusing its strengths on markets that it enjoys dominance. For example, it has focused on improving its performance in many routes where Easyjet does not service (Easyjet operates in 702 routes, while Ryanair operates in 1,600 routes) (CAPA 2014). This way, shareholders in both airlines get value for their investments through structured competition and increased productivity. What are the Strategic Choices for both Organisations? Ryanair The Low Cost Strategy Experts say Southwest Airlines was among the first aviation companies to exploit the opportunities that existed in the low-cost airline market segment (Dobruszkes 2006; Kew Stredwick 2005). Other airline companies, such as Ryanair, also discovered similar opportunities by leveraging their competitive advantage through the adoption of a low-cost strategy. Through its no-frills strategy, Ryanair discovered that it could be profitable by working 24 hours a day and keeping its aeroplanes in the air often (Dobruszkes 2006). Researchers say when the airline adopted this strategy, it succeeded because it was a â€Å"blue ocean† strategy – no other airline had adopted this strategy before (Ryans 2009). It created a huge demand for the airline’s services because it attracted price-conscious customers who would have chosen alternative modes of travel, or failed to travel at all, because of the high costs of air tickets. Through this strategy, Ryanair became less concerned about existing competition because it was operating in a unique market segment that other airlines had not used before (Ryans 2009). This way, it became profitable in an overcrowded industry. Today, the airline still reaps the benefit of being among the first airline companies, in Europe, to adopt the low-cost airline strategy. Partly, this is why the company commands the highest market share in the European low-cost airline market segment. Since its low-cost strategy sta rted increasing sales, Ryanair has always branded itself as a low-cost airline. Its strategy was to steal customers from dominant players in the airline industry by offering lower ticket prices compared to its rivals. To expand its customer base, the company tried to please all their customers by trying to meet the customer needs of every type of market in the industry (Malighetti et al. 2006). However, the company changed this strategy after realising it needed a differentiation strategy that would set it apart from its competitors. It also realised that its low-cost pricing strategy could not sustain its business because the margins made from such a strategy were low (Malighetti et al. 2006). Of importance, the company lacked a service advantage that would back up its cost advantage (Thompson 2005). After realising these strategic weaknesses, the company decided to introduce an outside perspective on its business model by creating superior value for its customers. In line with thi s strategy, the company also introduced value-added services to its core strategy. In this regard, it transformed its value chain for the better. This restructuring affirmed the views of Mennen (2005) who said a corporate strategy should have more value as a holistic entity as opposed to the sum of its parts. Punctuality and Efficiency Ryanair has always branded itself as an airline company that regards punctuality and efficiency as key segments of its service model (OConnell Williams 2012). The company conveys these advantages to its customers by operating in secondary airports where long queues and complicated security rules rarely inconvenience customers (OConnell Williams 2012). Furthermore, since the airline uses paperless booking, customers can easily buy their tickets and walk to the security gate without enduring any other sign-in rules. Comparatively, customers who fly with major airlines have to contend with these inconveniences, thereby making them less efficient and pu nctual compared to short-haul flight carriers. Based on these competencies, Ryanair has always argued that its success does not only depend on its low-cost strategy because its innovative on-time record and its value-added services also support its growth (OConnell Williams 2012). Observers have also said that its fleet of new aircrafts is another strategic competency that boosts the airline’s efficiency in the airline industry (Dobruszkes 2006; Kew Stredwick 2005). Flying to Secondary Airports Ryanair prefers to fly to secondary cities and pursue an outsourcing strategy to undertake its core production services, such as catering and aircraft maintenance (Mayer 2008). This strategy emerged after learning that many flag carriers use large airports, such as Heathrow, thereby limiting its competitiveness on this platform. Indeed, it would not be able to match the same level of customer service that most customers of long-haul carriers would enjoy if they used the larger airpor ts. Therefore, the company decided to use secondary airports, where their customers would get efficient services. To do so, the company uses a simplified airline network. The low fare strategy intertwines with the low-cost strategy because through lower costs, the company is able to offer low fares to its customers. In line with this low-cost strategy is a simplified pricing structure. EasyJet Similar to Ryanair, Easyjet’s strategic direction came from years of studying the success Southwest Airline (Sull 1999). Borrowing from the Southwest low-cost model, EasyJet operated using one type of aircraft and a point-to-point short-haul travel (Kew Stredwick 2005). Similar to other low-cost carriers, the airline also had no in-flight meals and a rapid turnaround. Another key aspect of its strategic competence was high aircraft use (Thompson 2005). These strategic factors made the airline more profitable than other flag carriers did. Other segments of its working model appear below Direct Sales Although Easyjet borrowed its strategic focus from Southwest Airline, its market strategy differed from Southwest because instead of relying on sales agents to make sales, the Airline relies on a direct sales strategy (Sull 1999). The logic behind this strategic approach is to eliminate commissions by not using travel agents. This approach was a cost-saving strategy. Similarly, the company would have to pay commissions to reservation agents and pay associated operation costs to reservation computers if it used sales agents to make sales. It chose to lower its costs by eliminating these expenses. Complementing its direct sales strategy is the paperless booking model. Low Cost Strategy Easyjet relies on the low-cost strategy because it believes that it cannot successfully compete with large aircraft carriers because they would use their economies of scale to â€Å"crash† the competition. In line with its low-cost strategy, the company also adopted a â€Å"no-fril l† strategy, like Ryanair, by eliminating in-flight meals and reducing the number of aircraft attendants. The company chose this strategy because it did not believe that these services contributed to customer satisfaction (Kew Stredwick 2005). Flying to Primary Airports For a long time, Easyjet has branded itself as a committed airline that strives to optimise customer experience, always. In this regard, it strives to offer convenience to its customers by operating in major airports around Europe. By doing so, it believes that its customers can get around to where they are going in good time. Customers have appreciated this strategy by increasing ticket sales (Kew Stredwick 2005). Discussion The low-cost airline sector has been a ruthless industry for aviation players. More than 20 airlines have collapsed after adopting the low-cost strategy (Air France 2011). Of importance, experts say the European low-cost airline sector is more brutal for low-cost airline companies than t he American market because both markets have different structures (CAPA 2014). The market differences are profound because profitable routes in Europe already have large airline companies that serve them. The European airline industry is also distinct because charter planes play a greater role in the industry, compared to other markets (Air France 2011). Short distance routes are also limited to low-cost airlines because European Union (EU) policies favour train services as opposed to airline services (Air France 2011). Lastly, in Europe, too much competition in the low-cost airline sector offers minimal profit margins for existing players in the industry. Therefore, the risk of overcapacity in the industry is real. This fact shows that this market has limitations that would ordinarily curtail the growth of companies that do not adopt an elaborate strategy. Ryanair and Easyjet understand these limitations and adopted elaborate strategies to navigate the economic challenges of opera ting in the low-cost airline sector (Mayer 2008). To cope with these challenges, both airlines have one dominant strategy that hinges on three factors – low costs of operations, low fares, and low frills. This understanding shows where the corporate strategies of both companies converge Where both Corporate Strategies Converge Cost Leadership and Differentiation According to Malighetti et al. (2006), the relative success, or failure, of low-cost airlines lies in two factors – cost leadership and differentiation. Ryanair and EasyJet have concentrated their corporate strategies on the cost leadership model because they both strive to become the best companies in the low-cost market segment. In this regard, both companies have gained the reputation of being the biggest low-cost airlines in Europe (Wallach 2015). Their â€Å"no frills† strategy has been a core tenet of their low-cost strategy because both airlines do not accommodate passenger meals, pre-arranged sit ting arrangements, or paper-based ticketing services (Malighetti et al. 2006). Therefore, both airlines strive to minimise their operating costs by cutting expenses such as salaries and fuel costs. To do so, both airlines use the single fleet type of operation and optimize flight crew productivity (Air France 2011). Furthermore, the â€Å"no-frill† strategy works by eliminating in-flight services to lower operating costs. However, the airlines employ the smallest number of people to meet the least regulatory requirement stipulated in the aviation sector (Malighetti et al. 2006). Therefore, a key part of their strategy is meeting the minimum contractual obligations required by airlines to their customers. Where both Corporate Strategies Diverge This paper has already demonstrated that Ryanair and Easyjet use the same business model – low-cost strategy. Both airlines also have similar performance indicators in the aviation sector. For example, in 2014, both organisations reported increased passenger numbers (Wallach 2015). However, both companies have unique internal strategies that differentiate their services beyond the low-cost model. For example, both airlines fly to different types of airports. Ryanair mainly flies to secondary airports, while Easyjet flies to primary airports. By flying to primary airports, the latter has had an edge above its competition because its customers can get to their destinations faster than Ryanair’s customers who have to board a taxi, or train, to get to major cities. Evidence of this fact emerges in Paris as a common destination for both airlines. Easyjet flies to Charles de Gaulle Airport and Orly Airport (two main airports in the city) (Thompson 2005). Comparatively, Ryanair flies to Beauvais-Tillà © Airport, which is almost one hour away from the city (Ryans 2009). The same example emerges in Rome as a popular destination for both airlines. While Easyjet flies to Leonardo da Vinci–Fiumicino Airp ort, which is close to the city, Ryanair flies to Ciampino–G. B. Pastine International Airport, which is far away from the main business district. Summary and Conclusion Easyjet and Ryanair have similar strategies to the extent that they both share the low-cost business model. Furthermore, like Ryanair, Easyjet also bases its corporate strategy on Southwest’s business model. Both airlines have perfected this strategy by introducing new price reduction measures, such as paperless booking. These operational strategies have created immense benefits for the two airlines, including optimizing airline use and increasing airline turnaround frequencies. Both airlines also have similar marketing strategies because besides marketing themselves as low-cost airlines, both companies do not use agents to reach their customers. Stated differently, both airlines use the direct sales strategy to market their services. Comprehensively, the two organisations share almost similar strategi es. Albeit these factors show areas of strategic convergence, both airlines are rivals in the low-cost airline market. Their performance will mainly depend on their ability to sustain their operational models. 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